AD ALTA
JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
Strange is Greek perception of black inhabitans of Africa.
Greeks had opportunities to meet people with black skin living
in contemporary Sudan and Egypt, whom they called Ethiopans,
Aithiopis (
Αἰθιοπίς) – literally „those with burned faces“. In
Homer
'
s Illias they play important role under leadership of
Memnon as allies of Trojans (Hom. Il. 7.450). Herodotus writes,
that they are good barbarians, have plenty of gold and are tallest,
fairest of people and live the longest (Hdt. 3.114). If they
reached Greece as slaves, they were considered very expensive
and were treated as such.
Greeks thus had opinion, that main factors affecting human traits
and abilities of nations are place of nations origin, climate of this
place, geographical conditions, amount of freedom this nation
has and autochthonny.
4
As weakening factors Greeks considered
mild climatic conditions. For example Syrians and Persians
came from warm environment and rich lands, thus they were
physicaly weaker. In opposite Celts came from less hospitable
and colder environment, thus they were physically stronger (Hp.
Aer. 12). Even Aristotle held similar opinions, he was a great
advocate of slavery (Aristot. Pol. 1.4-8). His work was one of
those, that helped spread these opinions over Mediterranean
(ISAAC, 2004). Very common was also opinion, that if stronger,
„better“ nation arrives and settles new region, in time this nation
„adopts“ qualities, which belong to this region – because of
climatic conditions, to which this nation has to adapt to. As
secondary factor affecting „quality“ of people Greeks considered
intermarriage with other ethnicities. This shoud have been
avoided by „stronger“ nations. Interaction and intermarriage
with others weakens the stronger nation and it is to be avoided –
as logic of above written shows, for maintaining of superiority
of the „stronger“ people, intermarriage with „weaker“ must be
prohibited.
5
It is interesting to observe this theory in realistic
setting. Especially efforts of Alexander of Macedon and some of
his succesors in the leading positions of hellenistic empires and
kingdoms seem to go directly against these principles. Their
policy was in great part pursuit of merge between Greek and
Macedon settlers (the stronger) and Oriental populations of
conquered regions (the weaker, inferior people).
3 Fifty shades of blacks in latin
Let us move further to the west and a little bit closer to
contemporary times, to times of overlordship of Roman Empire,
which adopted many of Greek intelectual concepts. We can
safely assume, that greater part of Roman black population
arrived there as slaves. Already in times of Roman republic
existed well organized trade connection between Italy and
certain African towns, from which black slaves were imported.
Most probable places of black slaves import seem to be Egypt
and north African towns situated around caravan paths
(SNOWDEN 1947, 283). In Egypt black people were known for
a long time and trade routes from south used Nile or lead around
Red Sea (NOSHY, 1937, 98). In Carthage blacks were known
already in classical times and reached town throught caravan
paths from central Africa. It is probable, that number of blacks
came to Rome as prisoners of war from number of conflicts
against Ethiopians. Successful, mainly defensive campaign of
Petronius
6
against kingdom of Kush in 23 BC (Plin. Nat. 6.181;
Cass. Dio His. Rom. 54.5.4; Strab. 17.1.54) certainly brought to
Rome number of black skinned slaves.
How did the Romans percieve physical dissimilarity of blacks?
Even compared to modern anthropological observations, we can
say Roman authors were relatively experienced anthropologists.
Their description of negroid type easily equals modern
definition. In Roman literature we have three main descriptions
of black inhabitans of Africa. First can be found in poem
Moretum (App. Verg. 2.4.32-33), where Vergil describes his
4
Original, indigenous, were for example Athenians in Attica.
5
Athenians during Pericles's rule in 451/450 BC passed law, in which citizenship is
allocated only to children, whose both father and mother are citizens. Until this law,
only father had to be citizen. This very narrowed number of citizens who enjoyed civil
benefits. Athenians considered themselves to be even better than other Greeks (Plut.
Per. 37.2-5; Aristot. Ath. Pol. 26.4).
6
About person of Pertonius see BAGNALL (1985).
black maid as woman with broad nose, thick lips and curvy hair,
and it is probably the most detailed describtion of negroid person
preserved in Roman literature. Second comes from Satyricon of
Petronius (Petr. 102) and third from Pliny the Elder (Plin. Nat.
2.189). In gigantic amount of latin literature could these three
more extensive descriptions seem as not so much, but we should
realize, that anthropological information about far-away nations
were not so important in the eyes of common public. Exeptions
could be nations in conflict with Rome (THOMPSON, 1989,
96). Description of elder Pliny is probably influenced by Greek
point of view, which says, that human looks and traits are
affected by natural conditions of ones origin. Romans
universally accepted this Greek idea, because it
’s paraphrasing
can be found in other Roman authors like Lucretius, Ovid,
Vitruvius and also in Digest of Emperor Justinian
(Dig.
21.1.31.21).
Latin language is very rich on expressions describing skin
colour. Before we move on, we will try to interpret the most used
expressions. Some latin words can not only tell us tinge, but also
context, in which they are intended. The most common word
used by Romans to describe black man or negroid type is, same
as with Greeks, Aethiops (SNOWDEN, 1947, 268; 1948, 31-44).
Originaly Greek authors like Homer, Hesiod, Mimnermus,
Aeschylus, Euripides and Apollonius of Rhode used it perhaps to
describe mythical or semi-mythical creatures, while authors of
prose like Herodotus, Strabo or Heliodorus tried to use it to
describe African realia (BEARDSLEY, 1967, 6). Herodotus
himself deals with Ethiopians (Hdt. 7.69-70) in considerable
detail, even divides them into two groups – eastern and western.
In his description remains a lot of ambiguity though – he even
calls Egyptians Ethiopians (Hdt. 2.104). This could lead, in later
times, Roman readers to not distinguish between Egyptians and
Ethiopians.
7
Term Aethiops was for Romans connected with
black man or with expression for black skin itself, which was
otherwise reffered to with words niger of fuscus. Other
expression for black skinned person was afer/afra. It's most well
known use is again in poem Moretum. It seems not impossible,
that Roman cognomen Afer could refer to black person - for
example inscription in Pompeii Helpis Afra rog(at)
8
[CIL IV
2993z, c]. But we must approach this idea with caution, example
of Gneus Domitius Afer shows us, that cognomen Afer did not
necessarily have to mean black skinned person. Also example of
Roman dramatic Publius Terentius Afer is interesting, especially
when we compare expressions used describing him by Suetonius
(Suet. Ter. 5.3) and already mentioned poem Moretum. Suetonius
uses two important expressions – afer and fuscus. Same are used
in Moretum to describe black slave maid. Word fuscus used to
describe skin colour of Terentius, which Romans considered
typical while describing black skinned man, cannot be left
unnoticed. Terentius supposedly came from Carthage, and if we
agree that black population was much more common there then
in Italy (BERTHOLON, 1896, 972-974; DELATTRE, 2012), we
cannot rule out his possible negroid roots. But until researchers
get more examples of cognomen Afer connected clearly with
negroid descent, the question of his origin and skin colour
cannot be definitely answered.
There are examples of more semantically related expressions in
literature, such as Maurus and Indus
.
Maurus stands also for
nation of African Moors, Indus for inhabitans of India.
Expression niger Indus can theoretically be considered as
mention of Ethiopians, however there is no clear proof in Roman
literature, that Romans would describe Indian people as black.
Maurus is used also by Juvenal in connection with nigri – black
colour indicates sinister
appearance
(Iuv. 1.5.53). Martial in turn
writes: „retorto crine Maurus“ (Mart. 6.39.6), that refers to one
aspect of black people – curvy hair. Word Maurus does not
necessarily has to mean black person, but it is most probable.
It is even more complicated with expressions niger and fuscus.
Both are used by Roman authors to describe skin of blacks –
Ethiopians. They are used very often also to describe people with
7
Horatius also uses expression Aethiops for Egyptians (Hor. Carm. 3.6.14).
8
For more information see SNOWDEN (1970, 270).
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