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annual meetings. This mechanism and its operation are regulated
by several branches of law, and predominantly by the corporate
law. The corporate law is conventionally classified as the
Private law, but progressively it includes more and more
mandatory provisions from the sphere of the Public law. These
provisions are often enacted due to failures, abuses and even
frauds committed while dishonestly taking advantage of the legal
fiction of a Plc and of the above described features. Czech
examples of the provisions trying to reduce these dark sides are
liability (Cvik & MacGregor, 2016), bankruptcy, squeeze-out
(Cvik & MacGregor, 2017) and other provisions. For the
purposes of this paper it is critical to underline the fact that the
directors of poorly performing or even unsound Plcs tend to
either avoid any decisions or to make highly risky and
controversial decisions (Duračinská, 2017).
These aspects and challenges project in perceptions of not only
the nature but as well the value of the stock, namely shares of the
Plc´s stock. These perceptions are inherently subjective and each
stakeholder approaches them from their own perspective and
based on his or her expectations. Therefore, the drive to propose
the accounting value, calculated based on historical costs, book
value or combined assets value of the Plc, as the objective stock
value, is controversial, by both listed and non listed Plcs.
However, even the drive to propose the fair market value
assessment is problematic, because in the same moment even the
same bulk of shares can have a dramatically different value for
different shareholders or outside investors. These differences are
even bigger when we move in time or when we consider
different sizes of blocks of shares. Financial theory and practice
do not give generally accepted recommendations in this respect
(Jackova, 2017) Indeed, this chronic unpredictability of value
occasionally leads to empirical and other studies which bring
concrete recommendations, such as e.g. that the share
repurchases make prices more efficient and reduce idiosyncratic
risk (Busch, 2016) and that IFRS firms have a lower rate of
restatements compared to the GAAP (El-Gazzar & Finn, 2017).
Both legislation and academia confronts the dichotomy of the
GAAP, with the historical cost preference, and the IFRS with the
fair market value preference. Regarding the listed Plcs, and
perhaps even non listed Plcs, they are inclined to go for the IFRs,
but this brings new questions about how to determine the fair
(market value) and the straggle over the nature of stock and
shares reappear. Indeed, the EU, its law and businesses face
challenges which they often address rather intuitively. The
following EU and Czech legislative and academic overview
along with the Czech case study demonstrates this clearly.
Discussion and semi-conclusions are dynamically across the
paper and culminates in its conclusion.
3.1 The nature and value of stock and their impact according
to the EU and Czech laws
Post-modern global society is marked not only by a very intense
competition and digitalization (Pelikánová, 2012) and
increasingly more complex and dynamic organizations
(Piekarczyk, 2016), but as well by an exponential growth in the
focus on accounting standards, such as the US GAAP and the
IFRS. They both encompass conservative financial accounting,
and this even regarding financial instruments, namely a special
type of tradable financial asset called a security. A security can
be either a debt security (such as bonds) or an equity security
(such as common stock) or a derivative (such as options). The
law and accounting standards have slowly to move to the
recognition that the nature and value of equity securities are very
particular and include both features of passive as well as active
investment. Indeed, the transfer of a stock demonstrates the
complexity of the overlap of business and law (Vivant, 2016)
and brings to the surface many controversial topics, often related
to the legal personality fiction and corporate veil doctrine in the
context of Plcs. As a matter of fact, transferring the stock means
transferring a virtual interest and perhaps even control on
somebody else with the consideration taking usually a monetary
form. In contrast to relatively commercial deals, in the case of a
stock ownership and transfer many stakeholders are directly or
indirectly involved. The law must address these features and
provide an appropriate legal framework facilitating the
administration and disposition with stock, while simultaneously
fitting in the general legal and strategic doctrines, such as the EU
doctrine of the famous four freedoms of movement, including
the movement of capital, in the single internal market (Cvik &
Pelikánová, 2016) and the digitalization proclaimed by Europe
2020 (Pelikánová, 2014). The EU law, and in the harmonization
wave as well as the Czech law, attempt to provide a legal
framework effectively and covering Plcs, their stocks,
shareholders and even stockholders and balance the involved,
often contradictory interests. Plcs can be created both based on
the EU law as well as national laws of the EU member states,
and the legislative proposed accounting method aims rather
towards the IFRS than US GAAP. Hence it is relevant to present
a cursory overview of key EU and Czech legislative documents.
Table 1: Overview of selected EU and Czech legislative acts
covering Plcs and their stock
EU law
Czech national law
Regulation 2137/85 on a statute
for European Economic Interest
Groupings (EEIGs)
Regulation 2157/2001 on a statute
for a European Company
(Societas Europea or SE)
Regulation 1435/2003 on a
statute for a European
Cooperative Society (SCE)
Act No. 89/2012 Coll.,
Civil Code
Act No. 90/2012 Coll.,
Business Corporation
Act
(Act. 513/1991 Coll.,
Commercial Code)
Directive 2012/30/EU on the
formation of Plcs and their capital
(the minimum capital EUR
25 000)
Directive 2009/102/EC (the 12
th
Company Law Directive) on
setting up a single-member
company in a Ltd (but EU
countries may decide to extend it
to Plcs).
Regulation (EC) 1606/2002
requiring IFRS for all listed
companies
Regulation (EC) 1126/2008 on
adopting IFRS
Act No. 563/1991
Coll., on accounting
Directive 2009/101/EC on the
coordination of safeguards
Directive 2013/34/EU on the
annual financial statements
Source: Prepared by authors based on their own research via
eurlex
Despite its importance and impact on the operation and control
of a Plc and on the investment sphere of the shareholder, the
nature of the stock of a Plc, i.e. shares of the given Plc, is not
well defined and described in the EU legislative acts. Indeed, the
post-Lisbon EU has both supranational and intergovernmental
natures and has normative and other characteristics centered
around the concept of the single internal market with significant
institutional features and a competing interest group (Damro,
2012). However due to the internal and competence challenges
of the EU, although a Plc. is critical for the single internal
market, its nature and stock valuation are not directly, explicitly
and mandatorily stated in the EU legislation. The current EU
strategy, Europe 2020: A strategy for smart, sustainable and
inclusive growth COM(2010) 2020 final (“Europe 2020”) is
strongly impacted by both formal and informal institutions
(Pasimeni & Pasimeni, 2016) and attempts to develop the
technological (Pelikánová & MacGregor, 2015) and other
potentials of a European economy (Balcerzak, 2016) and
systematically pushes for harmonization, if not unification and
international standardization, see the EU embracement of the
IFRS. However, it must be underlined that it has but little to do
with increasing competitiveness (Erixon, 2010) and improving
the understanding of principal business forms. The
implementation of the Europe 2020 underlines persistent
differences between EU member states (Çolak & Ege, 2013) due
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