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JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
to different social, political and economic traditions (Pelikánová,
2017), insufficient efforts of many European economies,
especially the most important ones (Balcerzak, 2015), and the
fact that smart, sustainable and inclusive activity, especially
innovative activities, of businesses are far from being a
spontaneous, market-based process (Pohulak-
Żołędowska,
2016). The effectiveness and efficiency of the goals of the
Europe 2020 and their implementation remains highly
questi
onable (Staníčková, 2017). The above table and the below
quotation demonstrates that the EU law is perhaps closer to find
an approach to the valuation (IFRS) than to the nature of stock.
Namely in the EU legal system, the Regulation 2157/2001 on SE
states only in Art.1 “The capital of an SE shall be divided into
shares. No shareholder shall be liable for more than the amount
he has subscribed.” and in Art.33 “Shareholders who have
contributed their securities to the formation of the SE shall
receive shares in the holding SE.” No further information on the
nature is provided and the EU legislative wording focuses in
more depth only on the valuation, especially on the valuation of
shares of stock of listed companies, see above in the Table. As a
matter of fact, the EU requires since 2005 all exchange-listed
firms, including Plcs., to adopt the IFRS in their consolidated
financial statements (Beisland & Knivslå, 2015) and softly push
for the same by other subjects, including not listed Plcs.
In the Czech legal system, more legislative information is
provided about the nature of shares and stock. Since the Czech
Commercial Code was abolished, the legal regime of Plcs, stock
and shares is included in the Civil Code and in the Act on
Business Corporations. The Czech Civil Code extends the
definition of the item (re) via Art. 489 et foll. even to rights.
Therefore, a Plc is an independent legal entity having its own
legal (juridical) personality and its stock/shares are a subject
matter of absolute property rights. The Act on Business
Corporation deals specifically with Plcs and defines them in Art.
243 “A Plc. is a company with a registered capital divided in a
certain number of shares.” It includes even the definition of
share via Art. 256 “A share is a security (stock) or an intangible
recorded (security) to which are linked rights of a shareholder as
a participant member to participate on the management, on the
profit and on the wind-up proceeds of a Plcs, as stated by this
Act and the Bylaws of the concerned Plc.” The regulation of
Czech Plcs is extensively developed and there are many
provisions in the Act on Business Corporation specifying the
nature, form and regime of Plcs, stocks and shares. Hence, it can
be suggested that the Czech law passed the Rubicon, and
recognizes both the legal independency of a Plc and its capacity
to have a legal (juridical) personality and the ownership potential
of stocks and shares. However, this leads to the dilemma about
how to address one of the most fundamental legal principles
applicable in the 21st century, namely that one law subject
cannot own another law subject. Boldly, slavery was abolished
and thus one person cannot own another person. This is the point
of view of law. However, in the economic and business
perspective, there is not any doubt that the single (or even
majority) shareholder is a true master of his Plc. and can (and
should be) labeled not only as the owner of shares but as well as
the owner of the Plc. Is such a Plc really an independent person
with its own will? Are not shares the building blocks to its
ownership? The below points how the academia is tackling this
prima facia non reconcilable dilemma and what happens in the
real business life, see the part about the Czech case study.
3.2 The nature and value of stock and their impact according
to the EU and Czech academic literature
Although academia and the academic press consistently state
that the continental law jurisdiction is rather formalistic, while
common law jurisdictions are more pragmatic (Pelikánová,
2012), there is no doubt about the fact that Plcs integrally
belong in all modern Western civilization jurisdictions and they
are a popular academic topic. Indeed, corporations and
companies are indispensable for business conduct in the 21st
century and both in the EU and in the Czech Republic, their
most popular forms are Ltds and Plcs. The number of small and
medium sized enterprises (“SMEs”) in various EU member
states often exceeds 90% and directly affects employment,
welfare, etc. (Brozek, 2017). A significant part of these SMEs
represent Plcs, often described as the paramount of capital
independence. However, no Plc can be considered as an isolated
entity, i.e. each Plc needs to take into account inside and outside
specifics and develop a well balanced relationship with all
relevant stakeholders (Gubova et al., 2017). Academia does not
miss the chance to underline that, due to the legal fiction of the
separate legal (juridical) personality, each and every Plc
potentially faces the eternal principal-agent problem linked to
the fiduciary duties, duty of loyalty and duty of due care and
centered around the threshold criteria of the business judgment
rule, see e.g. Smith v. Van Gorkom, 488 A.2d 858 (Del. 1985)
and §102)b)(7). Indeed, the doctrine of the business judgement
rule is linked with the evaluation of an admissible risk that is
borne by the statutory body, directors, when adopting the right,
proper and educated decision and the management of the Plc
(Smalik & Lukacka, 2016). It is important for directors to make
right decisions, to consider all risks and uncertainties while
respecting the individual conditions of each Plc. (Jackova,
2017), and this even in the hot context of the setting of directors
compensation (Kothari et al., 2016) and of the new preference of
managers to rather focus on the avoidance of losses than on
acquiring gains (Mandal et al., 2018). It cannot be overstated that
the asymmetric information from an agency-based perspective
creates moral hazards and conservatism in financial reporting
(Thijssen & Iatridis, 2016). The fundamental aim of a Plc
governance is to create a sustainable balance (Gubova et al.,
2017) between shareholders and directors, as well members of
the supervisory board, employees and other stakeholders of the
Plc (Duračinská, 2017). To make it even more complex, one
shareholder can be, at one and the same time, a director (or a
member of a supervisory board), an employee and a creditor. In
addition, directors and members of supervisory boards are
predominantly selected by shareholders, thus a majority
shareholder can become the only decision maker in this respect.
Naturally this is the case, as long as the law governing the Plc
does not provide otherwise, e.g. see Czech or German
compulsory rules about the involvement of employees in the
supervisory boards of certain Plcs. At the same time, academia
underlines the particularity of each Plc. Undoubtedly, each Plc.
is unique with distinctive features which vary based on asset
structure, development phase, investment, market position, etc.
(Jackova, 2017). Each Plc. follows its unique business model,
which (hopefully) ensures its financial, and other, stability
(Megova & Palka, 2016). Well, the questions are, who at the
very end determines it, how much is one ready to pay for such a
power and to what extent this power needs to consider other
stakeholders and their interests emerge. One of the six cultural
dimensions analyzed by Hofsted, namely individualism v.
collectivism, comes into play and manifestly influences the
approach to the nature of stock and its valuation (Todea &
Buglea, 2017) as well as to the corporate social responsibility
(Celeda & Bilkova, 2016).
Well, this chronic academic hesitation and incapacity to address
the nature of the Plc, its stock and shares can be confronted with
the academic readiness to go for a consent regarding the
valuation. Indeed, similar to the legislative trend towards the
IFRS, the prevailing academic trend is to expand the use of fair
value and so make financial information useful for firm
valuation (Kothari et al., 2010) and support stock market
development (Othman & Kossentini, 2015). The below case
study supports this view, but could hardly support another view
pushed by academia, namely calling for more academics among
the directors of Plcs (Huang et al., 2016).
4 Particular perception of the nature of stock and its impact
– Czech Case Study
The presented Czech case study concerns one Czech non listed
Plc. and the evolution of its shares prices and of its management
during the period 2011-2016. This target Plc has a seat in the
Czech Republic, is governed by the Czech national law and
allowed authors of this paper to access its internal data and use
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