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JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH

achieved a better score in the post-test than in the pre-test, but
only to a small extent.

Figure 3: Box Plot: Difference Score of Groups

To assess whether the difference scores between the
experimental and control groups are statistically significant, we
used a two-sample t-test for equality/inequality of variance. In
order to find out the uniformity of variance, we used an F-test
for uniformity of variance.

Table 4: Results of F-Test Difference Score for Equality of

Variances

3.4

2.208

< 0.007

0.333

Table 4 shows the results of the F-test for equality of variances
in groups. The test criterion value F is 2.208 and the
corresponding P value is 0.007, which means that at the level of
statistical significance <0.05, there is a significant difference in
the variability of difference scores between the experimental and
control groups, so we further used the t-test for inequality of
variances.

Table 5: Results of t-Test Difference Score for Inequality of

Variances

3.4

7.392

< 0.001

0.333

Table 5 shows the results of the t-test for inequality of variances
in groups. The test criterion value t is 7.392, the respective P
value is <0.001, which means that the difference scores of the
experimental and control groups are significant at the level of
statistical significance <0.05.
The achieved level of critical thinking in the pre-test and post-
test and the difference in the scores achieved by the groups can
also be seen in the summary Figure 4.

Figure 4: Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test Results for

Experimental and Control Group in Percentage

Based on the results of the experiment, we conclude that our
assumptions were confirmed. Pupils to whom the P4C program
was applied in their classes have achieved a higher level of
critical thinking than pupils to whom this learning strategy was
not applied. In view of the fact that in the experimental group the
level of critical thinking increased by only 15% thanks to the
P4C program within two months and a half, we conclude that
this is not a significant, but rather a moderate development of
critical thinking. However, we are of the opinion that the long-
term or year-round introduction of the P4C program into the
educational process would develop critical thinking in a much
more effective and significant way.

4 Conclusion

This paper refers to the need to improve the level of critical
thinking of Slovak pupils, because pointing out shortcomings in
critical thinking has been present in our society for a
considerable period of time without significant improvement.
We cannot expect a change in the level of critical thinking in the
short term. On the other hand, we emphasize that critical
thinking can be developed by teachers using targeted methods,
and we appeal to the application of activational methods in the
educational process. Some activational methods are also used
within the P4C program, while all methods in the program are
designed to develop critical, creative and committed thinking.
However, the process of this development does not take place
independently. These kinds of thinking overlap each other, so it
is difficult to observe only one kind of thinking. In addition,
emphasis is also placed on developing other abilities and skills,
such as writing, because methodological manuals also include
written exercises. Attention is paid mostly to reading, and the
philosophical literary story serves primarily to introduce the
topic and to follow model situations of problem-solving.

Quantitative research has not revealed highly innovative results
mainly due to the fact that several studies of critical and creative
thinking based on the impact of the P4C program on different
ages have been conducted abroad in the past (Daniel, Auriac,
2011; Dunlop, 2015; Siddiqui, Gorard et al. 2019). Nevertheless,
the research provided a more comprehensive picture of the use
of methods of the Philosophy for Children program in secondary
schools in Slovakia. It is important that teachers know the
theoretical and practical basis of critical thinking through which
they should develop the ability to use activational methods to
enhance critical thinking. Based on our research, we consider the
application of the Philosophy for Children program or its parts to
be an effective tool in developing critical thinking. The
challenge of encouraging the development of critical thinking in
schools should not be just a phrase, but it but should be
transformed into a practical and systematic activity affecting in
particular teachers who should activate pupils, require greater
responsibility for their decisions and support the presentation of

their own ideas. Gažovič and Markoš (2017) point out that a
critically thinking person does not feed on his mistrust. Such a
person sees not only people who cannot be trusted, but also those
who deserve his/her trust.

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